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Plant Taxonomy
Plantae
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Explore the diversity of with One Species at a Time, EOL's podcast series.
Each short audio story focuses on species and the scientists who study them, include multimedia extras and relevant educational resources.
Our podcasts are hosted by Ari Daniel Shaprio and produced by Atlantic Public Media
One Species at a Time Podcast Series
License | http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ |
Rights holder/Author | Tracy Barbaro, Tracy Barbaro |
Source | podcast.eol.org |
Tissues create hydrostatic pressure: plants
Tissues of plants generate hydrostatic pressure by injecting solutes into a confined space and allowing water to enter.
"Osmotic Motors: Hydraulic motors and actuators work on the basis of a change in hydrostatic pressure…plants generate hydrostatic pressure by injecting solutes into a confined space that must be surrounded by a selective membrane that retains the solutes but allows water to permeate freely into this space. Osmosis therefore requires two components: a semipermeable membrane inside to concentrate the solutes and a restraining, but elastic and expandable wall outside to prevent the compartment from bursting when water is taken up during the hydration of these solutes. The hydration of the solutes generates hydrostatic pressure inside the osmotic compartments. All plants use osmosis to pump and concentrate water-binding electrolytes and nonelectrolytes into the inside of their cells and in particular into the vacuole, a membrane-surrounded compartment specifically designed for storing solutes and water. Osmotically operating plant cells allow the build-up of internal pressures far exceeding that of car tires." (Bar-Cohen 2006:474)
Learn more about this functional adaptation.
- Yoseph Bar-Cohen. 2006. Biomimetics: biologically inspired technologies. Boca Raton, FL: CRC/Taylor & Francis. 527 p.
License | http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0/ |
Rights holder/Author | (c) 2008-2009 The Biomimicry Institute |
Source | http://www.asknature.org/strategy/3e55a8aa655e1a2be17a225e93662d17 |
Walls prevent collapse under tension: plants
Xylem vessels and tracheids of vascular plants prevent their own collapse while under tension via helical thickening of their walls.
"In young plants, often in addition to the epidermis, the cells specialized for conducting water from root to leaves and shoots, have a mechanical function. The xylem vessels and tracheids are elongated cells (in the case of vessels, the vessel itself is composed of a series of shorter 'vessel elements' forming an axially elongated structure). These cells have thickened walls which help prevent their collapse when water in them is under tension through the pull of the transpiration stream (Fig. 3). The drying effect at the leaf surface promotes water movement from the roots through the plant body. The first formed conducting cells of the xylem consist of rather thin-walled, elongated cells that have to extend with the growth in the length of the stem. Their collapse during the time they are needed to function is prevented by specialised thickening in their walls. This takes on the form of a series of annuli, or of a spiral (helical) winding…The tracheids and vessels formed after extension growth is complete tend to have thick, rigid walls with either thin areas (pits), as in both tracheids and vessel elements, or clear openings between cells in line, as in vessel elements alone. These facilitate water movement from cell to cell. Even here, some of these cells in a range of species have an additional helical thickening on the inner side of their walls." (Cutler 2005:99-100)
Learn more about this functional adaptation.
- Cutler, DF. 2005. Design in plants. In: Collins, MW; Atherton, MA; Bryant, JA, editors. Nature and Design. Southampton, Boston: WIT Press. p 95-124
License | http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0/ |
Rights holder/Author | (c) 2008-2009 The Biomimicry Institute |
Source | http://www.asknature.org/strategy/b4149eba37d00744c8754978095f5551 |
Structural composition provides strength in changing conditions: plants
The cell walls of vascular plants provide mechanical strength during different stages of growth by adjusting their structural composition.
"Plant cells need to be fully hydrated to work properly (except in periods of dormancy, as for example in many seeds). Individual vegetative cells in plants, unlike those in animals, are encased in a cellulose cell wall. The cellulose cell wall may be very thin, in cells that are actively dividing, as for example, in growing shoot or root tips. However, once developed into their mature form, the cell walls may become thicker, and additional substances, mainly lignins, incorporated into their structure. The cells themselves, then, contribute to the mechanical strength of the plant. Thin-walled cells when fully hydrated, are like small, pressurised containers. Mature cells, especially those with thick walls, have mechanical strength of their own, even without watery contents. Indeed, many fibres lack living contents when mature." (Cutler 2005:98)
Learn more about this functional adaptation.
- Cutler, DF. 2005. Design in plants. In: Collins, MW; Atherton, MA; Bryant, JA, editors. Nature and Design. Southampton, Boston: WIT Press. p 95-124
License | http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0/ |
Rights holder/Author | (c) 2008-2009 The Biomimicry Institute |
Source | http://www.asknature.org/strategy/49f950fa30f8cd1472fcf52236291f23 |
Creating energy from sunlight: plants
Photosynthesis in plants creates energy from sunlight through five steps in the Kok Cycle.
"The study of photosynthesis in plants could provide new clues by explaining how they absorb almost 100% of the sunlight reaching them, and how they transform it into other forms of energy. Researchers Michael Haumann and Holger Dau, from the Freie Universität Berlin, used the X-ray source of the European Synchrotron Radiation Facility (ESRF) to investigate the kinetics of the photosynthesis process. They have confirmed the existence of a fifth step in the catalysis process converting water into oxygen, and have published their results in Science Vol 310 (1019-1021). Five intermediate states have been proposed in the process of photosynthesis - a cycle known as the 'Kok cycle' - but only four had been proved until recently. With the help of the ESRF, scientists have been able to identify the missing state, which is particularly important because it is directly involved in the molecular oxygen formation." (Courtesy of the Biomimicry Guild)
Learn more about this functional adaptation.
- Haumann M; Liebisch P; Muller C; Barra M; Grabolle M; Dau H. Photosynthetic O2 Formation Tracked by Time-Resolved X-ray Experiments. Science. 310(5750): 1019-1021.
License | http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0/ |
Rights holder/Author | (c) 2008-2009 The Biomimicry Institute |
Source | http://www.asknature.org/strategy/4a77b8541f02437695521f1c4185c93a |
Structures maximize light absorption: plants
Thylakoid structures of plants and cyanobacteria maximize exposure to light by being stacked and cross-linked.
"Since life needs light, air, and a protective shield, it is in theory subject to conditions similar to those that prevail for a photochemical surface reaction. Such a reaction is the process of photosynthesis in green leaves, by which light is transformed into chemical energy. Perhaps, then, nature would build cities similar to the submicroscopic thylakoid structures--the power stations of plants, which consist of self-contained flat membrane sacs, often stacked like rolls of coins and linked to each other by many cross-connections. The units are arranged so as to make maximal use of light and to form as large a contact surface as possible with the environment--architectonic criteria our cities still fail to meet adequately. A bird's-eye view of a natural metropolis would show nothing but green. No roofs, parking lots, or highways would be visible. All flat surfaces would be covered with woods, parks, and gardens. The vertical structures would be the facades of offices, residential buildings, cafes, and boutiques, all with access to nature. Inside the 'thylakoid structures' would be sufficient space for transportation, parking lots, shopping malls, and factories, which could manage with artificial light." (Tributsch 1984:7-8)
Learn more about this functional adaptation.
- Tributsch, H. 1984. How life learned to live. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press. 218 p.
License | http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0/ |
Rights holder/Author | (c) 2008-2009 The Biomimicry Institute |
Source | http://www.asknature.org/strategy/a269b3596fb9935858d7eab9b52df6ac |
Leaves maximize sun exposure: plants
Leaves of plants maximize exposure to sun to maximize photosynthesis by moving throughout the day.
"Since daylight is essential for this process, every plant must, as far as possible, position its leaves so that each collects its share without interfering with any others the plant may have. This may require changing the posture of the leaves throughout the day as the sun moves across the sky. The accuracy with which a plant can position them may be judged simply by gazing up at the canopy in a wood. The leaves form a near-continuous ceiling, fitting together like the pieces of a jigsaw." (Attenborough 1995: 46)
Learn more about this functional adaptation.
- Attenborough, D. 1995. The Private Life of Plants: A Natural History of Plant Behavior. London: BBC Books. 320 p.
License | http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0/ |
Rights holder/Author | (c) 2008-2009 The Biomimicry Institute |
Source | http://www.asknature.org/strategy/48ca5bafeeb8e8e88f2a55a09d49eedd |
Root systems control erosion: vascular plants
Root systems of plants control erosion through architectural characteristics.
"A distinction is usually made between mechanical and hydrological effects of roots without much focus on the influence of architectural characteristics on these effects. Some commonly used architectural characteristics are the spatial distribution of root area ratio for slope stability analysis and root density or root length density for analysis of water erosion control. But many other architectural features, such as the branching pattern, root orientation and fractal characteristics, seem empirically and intuitively related to the effect of root systems on erosion phenomena. Many links between root system architectural characteristics and their soil fixing effects probably do exist and more links could be identified. However, most of these links remain very weak and empirical. The research which is needed to make these relationships explicit is still poorly developed and mainly focused on resistance against uprooting by wind loading. Moreover, although the mechanical and hydrological mechanisms of soil-root interaction are rather well described for simple processes such as sheet, rill or interrill erosion, this knowledge is almost nonexistent for complex processes such as gully erosion. This hampers understanding the importance of root system architecture for these processes." (Reubens et al. 2007:398-399)
Learn more about this functional adaptation.
- Reubens, B.; Poesen, J.; Danjon, F.; Geudens, G.; Muys, B. 2007. The role of fine and coarse roots in shallow slope stability and soil erosion control with a focus on root system architecture: a review. Trees-Structure and Function. 21(4): 385-402.
License | http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0/ |
Rights holder/Author | (c) 2008-2009 The Biomimicry Institute |
Source | http://www.asknature.org/strategy/93f9fcfba6da81f945a49a4f9e57af48 |
Wood resists fracture: trees
Wood of trees resists crosswise fracture via complex architecture.
"That construction of lengthwise tubes with relatively modest cross-connections gives wood its spectacular anisotropy…Crosswise, though, most woods resist fracture well, with the highest work of fracture of any rigid biological material; the orientational difference can be as much as a hundredfold (table 15.7). Not only can we use all kinds of intrusive fasteners such as nails and screws without initiating fracture, but a tree can be injured by a crosswise ax stroke and yet not crack in the next storm. A sawyer must cut almost all the way across the trunk before a healthy tree topples." (Vogel 2003:343)
Learn more about this functional adaptation.
- Steven Vogel. 2003. Comparative Biomechanics: Life's Physical World. Princeton: Princeton University Press. 580 p.
License | http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0/ |
Rights holder/Author | (c) 2008-2009 The Biomimicry Institute |
Source | http://www.asknature.org/strategy/a0393af7c0fd1892630b1639b2eb4c3a |
Red leaves hide plants from insects: plants
Anthocyanins in leaves camouflage the plant from insects and make insects more vulnerable to predators by inhibiting the reflecting of green wavelengths.
"Hence, leaf anthocyanins by closing the green reflectance window left by chlorophyll make the leaf less discernible to insect consumers (plant camouflage hypothesis). Alternatively (or in addition), the usually green folivorous insects, if found on a red leaf, are more easily recognized by their predators (undermining of insect camouflage by the plant)…The neglected hypothesis of plant camouflage against herbivory and the recent opinion that leaf redness may undermine the green folivorous insect camouflage are theoretically more sound since they are compatible with folivorous insect vision physiology and also afford a reasonable explanation for the almost exclusive selection of red anthocyanins in leaves." (Manetas 2006:172)
Learn more about this functional adaptation.
- Manetas, Y. 2006. Why some leaves are anthocyanic and why most anthocyanic leaves are red?. Flora: Morphology, Distribution, Functional Ecology of Plants. 201(3): 163-177.
License | http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0/ |
Rights holder/Author | (c) 2008-2009 The Biomimicry Institute |
Source | http://www.asknature.org/strategy/41485cdf8b83c1fd210b5b1c66e9c052 |